Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Computer Networks
- Creating a Network
- Protecting Your Data
- Passwords
- Redundancy
- Functional Redundancy
- Backups
- Uninterruptible Power Supplies
- Computer Viruses
- Visual Basic Scripts
- Macro Security
- Firewalls
- Conclusion
1. Introduction
This paper is limited to a brief review of some issues that you may wish to consider in acquiring and protecting your information technology infrastructure. I will discuss considerations that will apply to stand-alone and networked computers used by firms of any size. These materials include references to a number of print and Internet resources that you may find helpful in defining your technology needs and identifying the appropriate hardware and software to meet them.
My exposure to computer networking started in 1991 with the installation by my firm of a network, principally to connect the computers used by our support staff. We now have a network with 38 users (staff and lawyers) in two locations, including several printers, a document scanner, Internet access and online legal research resources. More recently, I have developed a small network in my home that includes, albeit on a smaller scale, most of the elements that a small firm (and many large ones) will need for a network. I have therefore included some information on my home network in this paper.
There are no “right” answers for the matters discussed in this paper. Some of the specific products mentioned here are discussed only because they are the ones I happen to use. Each of them has competitors that you may find more suited to your needs; shop around.
A discussion of production software (which includes word processors, spreadsheets and accounting programs, among others) is not included.
In the rest of this paper, when I refer to Windows, I am referring to all of Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000 and XP (to the extent that these operating systems behave in the same fashion). When the information I present refers to a specific version of the Windows operating system, I will say so.
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2. Computer Networks
Why have a network? The answer, with apologies to John Donne, is that no computer is an island. On its own, a computer is a powerful tool; connected to other computers and accessories, this tool can be leveraged to attain significant performance advantages and cost savings. The August 2002 edition ofenRoute magazine discussed using home computers linked together over the Internet to support research initiatives like the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. "If you link the smarts of millions of desktop computers together via the Internet," the article said, "you end up with the mother of all supercomputers."
In any setting where two or more computers are used in conjunction with each other, you will find that a network will facilitate sharing files, printers and any other accessories your firm might find useful. I mentioned my home network at the start of this paper. I use it to allow me and my family to share a high-speed Internet connection among a computer used by my children, another used by me and my wife, and my office-issued notebook computer. My home network also has a shared printer, and the file-sharing abilities allow us all to save crucial files in one location, where I back them up on a tape drive.
There are two generic types of networks:
- peer-to-peer networks, in which similar computers are attached to each other, and
- client-server networks, in which a number of “client” computers are connected to a central “server” computer.
A peer-to-peer network, as the name suggests, is a group of similar computers connected together. Many peer-to-peer networks rely on the networking capabilities built into Windows, but there are other options available. In Windows, the networking is accomplished by enabling the file- and printer-sharing features of Windows. This will enable you to view files on another computer via the “Network Neighborhood” icon on your Windows desktop. See the documentation that came with your computer for instructions on how to enable these features.
Some peer-to-peer networks may have a computer dedicated to electronic file storage, called a "server". A server of this type must be distinguished from the server that is installed in a client-server network, where the client computers give users access to the network. A more powerful computer is designated as a server, uses a network operating system, such as Novell Netware or Microsoft Windows NT/2000, to store applications and data files.
The principal advantages of choosing a peer-to-peer network are:
- lower cost, because no central server is required;
- less dependence on central services, allowing other systems to function when one is inoperable.
The principal advantages of a server-client network are:
- centralized file storage;
- greater security against unauthorized access.
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3. Creating a Network
If you are comfortable with technology, setting up a network is fairly easy (either peer-to-peer or client-server). Nonetheless, it is preferable to hire a competent technician to do this work and not attempt it yourself, especially for your firm’s network.
For the purpose of this discussion, I will use a hypothetical four-person firm that wants to create a network with four computers and a printer, and wants to share a high-speed Internet connection. I also assume that all four computers have access to the Internet, for receiving e-mail or surfing the Web. To accomplish this, a modem is required. The modem is attached to a dedicated cable or telephone line (which provides the service). Internally, the modem will need to be connected to a hub, router or wireless access point. Whichever of these is present on a network, it serves as the central point through which all traffic flows. As well, each of the computers will need a network card, which connects the computer to a network cable. Finally, a cable will have to be run from the hub or router to the location of each computer or a wireless access point installed.
Wired networks rely on cables that run from the server to the individual computers, via connections in a device called a hub. These networks are physically secure because they rely on cabling run from computer to computer on the network. Firewall technology, discussed below, adds a measure of protection to avoid unauthorized users from accessing your network.
If you choose to install a wireless network, you need to consider additional security issues. A firewall is still necessary to ensure the security of a wireless network from conventional security risks, but data transmitted on these networks is also susceptible to interception. Wireless networks use a transmission system similar to that used in cordless telephones, which means the information sent over your network can be intercepted by unauthorized parties who have the technological resources to do so. Most wireless networking infrastructure comes with some built-in security features, including Wired Equivalency Privacy encryption. This encryption is not sufficiently secure, despite its name, to give a complete assurance of privacy. Greater security can be gained by adding a Virtual Private Network, which adds another layer of encryption and security to the wireless network.
Wireless networking is an especially fluid area of computer technology at the time of writing (September 2002). Unless you have an insurmountable wiring problem in your office, it is probably preferable to wait until the security difficulties in wireless networking are more fully addressed before you use wireless networking in your office.
With the hardware in place to make the connections, it only remains to set up your computers to share the information and resources. This is done by using the sharing features of Windows. Any drive on a computer can be shared, as can any device connected to a computer, such as a printer. This allows other users connected to your network to see the shared resources as if it were attached to their own computer. If there is information that you do not wish to share, you can select only the folders that you wish to share, or require a password to be entered before you can access a shared folder. Consult your Windows manuals for full instructions on sharing.
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4. Protecting Your Data
Once you have made your investment in technology, it is vital that you protect your data. The methods that you choose to put this protection in place will vary with the size of your firm, the number of computers involved and your budget. The need for protection must be addressed on a number of different fronts, including:
- preventing unauthorized persons from accessing your hardware,
- ensuring that you back up your data,
- taking steps to avoid infection by computer viruses, and
- if your computer is connected to the Internet, taking steps to ensure that unauthorized users cannot access your system.
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5. Passwords
Any computer with a Windows operating system installed can be configured to ask the user for a password after it starts up. This password does not prevent an unauthorized user from starting up your computer and viewing data on it. Windows uses this password to identify a specific user and deliver customized Windows desktop settings to him or her. Some measure of protection can be gained by setting a password in your screen saver. However, either of these passwords can be defeated by an intruder simply turning your computer off by a power switch and turning it back on.
A greater degree of protection can be gained by setting a power-on password in the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). A password of this type must be entered before the Windows operating system starts. This password will prevent unauthorized users from accessing your hard drive or the information on it. You must use great care in setting this type of password, because you will lose access to the hard drive yourself if you lose the password. Consult the manual that came with your computer for full particulars on how to set a power-on password on your system.
If you are using networking software like Novell Netware or Windows NT, you must also set a user password. If all sensitive data is kept on your network computer, the network password will generally protect your sensitive data from intruders.
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6. Redundancy
Any computer system should have certain redundancies built into it to ensure that the failure of one component does not cause the complete and irrecoverable loss of your data. There are two significant redundancy issues to address: functional redundancy and backups. The functional redundancy in a system refers to the fault tolerance of the system. Ideally, your system should be able to survive the failure of any one component. Maintaining backups addresses the need to restore the data on your system after a catastrophic failure.
On less complex systems, you may choose not to set up any system of functional redundancy. On systems of this type, particularly if you make a daily data backup, there is little risk of a catastrophic loss of a large volume of data. However, there is the risk that files created or modified after the last backup cannot be recovered after a component failure.
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7. Functional Redundancy
Some level of functional redundancy makes it less likely that you will lose data when a component fails. On a peer-to-peer network, the functional redundancy may be accomplished as simply as maintaining a server and a backup server and manually copying files from the main server to the backup server periodically. Such processes can be automated in a client-server setting by any number of means. In a setup like this, there is still some risk that a failure will result in a loss of data created after the last backup.
A more reliable functional redundancy strategy involves the use of a Redundant Array of Independent Disks (“RAID”), which uses two or more disk drives instead of one drive to provide better disk performance, error recovery and fault tolerance. All files are stored simultaneously on two different hard drives. On a server equipped with a RAID, one of the disks can fail without forcing the shutting down of the system or the loss of data.
When a component fails on a RAID-equipped server, you receive an alarm message advising of the failure. You can generally continue to use the server and save data to it until a convenient time to install a new hard drive. With a RAID server, the individual drives are generally “hot-swappable”, meaning that the failed drive can be removed and a new one installed without shutting down the server. When the RAID server is restarted, all necessary data is then automatically copied to the new drive. My firm has used RAID servers for several years. While we have experienced drive failures while using RAID set-ups, we have never incurred downtime during business hours as a consequence of those failures.
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8. Backups
http://www.connected.com/ and http://www.systemrestore.com/ have received favourable mention in the TechnoLawyer community.
The functional redundancy issues discussed above will not address the possibility of other failures in your system. A fire could destroy your office. A power surge could destroy a hard drive. At a less catastrophic level, you could inadvertently delete a file and not realize that you had done so for a few days. I have seen some statistics quoted by computer industry sources that over 80 per cent of all data restorations from backups are required because of such inadvertent file deletions.
Whatever the cause, you need to maintain a backup copy of your data, ideally at a location other than the computer upon which you store it. Generally, this storage is on the form of a tape.
While tapes are the most common backup medium, there are options that use re-writable CDs, Zip drives or high-speed Internet connections. If the Internet options are attractive to you, ensure that the data is encrypted so that it cannot be read by anyone but you. The services available at
There are a number of different approaches to making a backup copy of your data. One of these is simply to copy all information daily to one of the series of media that are reused over some period. A setup for cycling the media can be a simple alternation between two media or a complex sequence. Directions for a variety of backup cycles can be found in the manuals that come with your backup drive. You should also be sure to keep a copy of the backup media off-site, where it cannot be damaged if a catastrophic event destroys your office.
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9. Uninterruptible Power Supplies
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (“UPS”) is a backup battery. The UPS is plugged into your electrical outlet and your computer and essential peripherals are then plugged into it. When a power failure occurs, the battery in the UPS allows the devices plugged into it to continue to function, so that you can shut down your computer in an orderly fashion and ensure that your data is not lost. Many UPS units can be configured to automatically shut down after halting your active programs and saving your open files.
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10. Computer Viruses
A computer virus is a rogue computer program, typically small, designed to copy itself to other computers and disrupt their normal operation. Computer viruses are typically spread through e-mail or by downloading program files or macro files. Certain e-mail programs seem to be more vulnerable to infection by these viruses. Before buying your e-mail client, research the security and anti-virus features available for the candidates you are considering.
You could avoid many virus infections by not opening e-mail attachments. However, this strategy is akin to throwing out all of your incoming postal mail without opening it. A more practical solution is to take some of the steps outlined here and to purchase anti-virus software and ensure that you keep its virus signature files up to date. Anti-virus software publishers offer updated virus signature files, which detect and cure viruses at frequent intervals. Norton Anti-Virus and McAfee Virus Scan are two of the leading products in this area.
If you use the Microsoft products, there are certain steps that you can take to minimize the risks mentioned above. At my firm, we now use Lotus Notes, partly because it is less vulnerable to virus infections. When we used Microsoft Outlook, we had reasonable success avoiding virus infections by preventing Visual Basic scripts from running automatically and by setting the “macro security” level to medium.
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11. Visual Basic Scripts
http://www.f-secure.com/virus-info/u-vbs/.
Instructions on preventing Visual Basic scripts from running automatically in Windows 95, 98 NT and 2000 can be found on the F-Secure Web site at
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12. Macro Security
You can set the “macro security” level in Microsoft Office products by selecting the “Tools” pull-down menu in Word or Excel. Then select the “Macro” menu item, then choose “Security”. You will then see this dialogue box:
Use your mouse to click the white circle beside “Medium” and click OK. Any time you start a process that requires a macro to run, you will be asked to confirm that you wish to run the macro. If you get that dialogue box below, and do not know why, click “Disable Macros” and continue.
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13. Firewalls
A firewall is hardware or software designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network or stand-alone computer. All messages passing through a firewall are examined, and those that do not meet certain specified security criteria are blocked. If you have a computer which is powered up at all times with a live Internet connection via a high-speed modem, you should consider some level of firewall protection. Firewalls are available as software and hardware. Both varieties of firewall have advantages, but I have found the hardware firewall that I use on my home network easier to administer and maintain than the software firewalls I have tried.
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14. Conclusion
Once you have invested in technology for your practice, you will quickly find that you cannot work without it. It is therefore essential to keep your computer system functional and keep the data that you work with intact. Having made the investment in a system that will meet your needs, it takes very little additional effort to ensure that you also take the appropriate measures to protect your investment.
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Christopher Pike, Benson · Myles, St. John’s, Newfoundland